Top 10 Ancient African Cities Older Than Most European Capitals

In Summary:

• African cities with origins stretching back millennia, supported by archaeological and UNESCO records, underscore the continent’s role as one of humanity’s earliest urban centres.
• Their advanced trade systems, architecture and scholarship shaped regional and intercontinental exchanges long before modern Europe emerged.

• These cities contributed lasting economic strength, cultural identity and intellectual influence across Africa and beyond.
• Their endurance, innovation and historical depth place them among the world’s most significant early civilizations.

Deep Dive!!

Thursday, 11 December 2025 – Africa’s ancient urban history is far deeper and more expansive than many global narratives often acknowledge. Long before the rise of most European capitals, thriving African cities had already developed structured governments, complex trade systems and distinctive cultural identities that shaped regional and international relations. Archaeological findings, backed by carbon dating and UNESCO research, reveal that some of these cities emerged thousands of years before places like London, Paris or Berlin were even founded. Their longevity and sophistication demonstrate that Africa was not merely a participant in early human civilization, but one of its leading architects.

These ancient cities were more than settlements, they were centers of innovation that influenced architecture, science, religion and global trade. Cities like Djenné, Axum and Faiyum represent civilizations that mastered irrigation, metallurgy, maritime commerce and urban governance at remarkable scales. Their connections stretched across the Mediterranean, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Ocean and sub Saharan Africa, making them critical hubs in early global exchange networks. Through monumental buildings, preserved artifacts and written records, they offer compelling evidence of Africa’s long standing contribution to humanity’s shared heritage.

Understanding the age and significance of these cities also challenges outdated assumptions about Africa’s past and highlights the continent’s foundational role in shaping civilization. These cities tell stories of resilience, adaptation and ingenuity, showing how African societies evolved through shifting climate conditions, trade dynamics and political transformations. By exploring these ancient urban centers, the article aims to restore historical balance and shed light on Africa’s enduring legacy as one of the world’s oldest and most influential cradles of civilization.

10. Axum, Ethiopia (Founded c. 400 BCE)

Axum stands as a monumental testament to Africa's preeminent role in ancient global networks. Recognized by UNESCO and historical scholarship as one of the four great powers of the classical world, alongside Rome, Persia, and China, the Axumite Kingdom emerged as a sophisticated urban and commercial hub by at least 400 BCE. Archaeological excavations, including those detailed in the Journal of African Archaeology, reveal extensive palace complexes, advanced hydraulic engineering, and the iconic stelae, demonstrating a highly centralized state. This civilization controlled trade routes linking the Mediterranean with the interior of Africa and the Indian Ocean, minting its own coinage and exerting influence across the Red Sea into Arabia. Axum’s foundation predates the establishment of nearly every modern Northern European capital, underscoring its antiquity and the advanced political economy of the ancient Horn of Africa.

The kingdom’s significance extended beyond commerce into the realm of geopolitics and faith. At its zenith in the early centuries CE, Axum’s territory encompassed parts of contemporary Sudan, Eritrea, and Yemen, with its port of Adulis serving as a critical nexus for international trade. Perhaps its most enduring legacy was its early adoption of Christianity as a state religion in the 4th century CE, making it one of the world’s first Christian kingdoms. The ruins of ancient palatial structures, royal tombs, and the foundational site of the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, which tradition holds houses the Ark of the Covenant, collectively affirm Axum’s status not merely as a regional power but as a civilization of foundational importance to both African and world history.

9. Kilwa Kisiwani, Tanzania (Founded c. 900 CE, but settlement dates earlier)

The island city of Kilwa Kisiwani represents the zenith of the medieval Swahili civilization and its integration into the vast Indian Ocean world. While its peak as a sovereign sultanate occurred between the 12th and 15th centuries, archaeological evidence from the site, as recorded by UNESCO and the British Institute in Eastern Africa, confirms continuous settlement from at least the 8th–9th century CE. Kilwa’s wealth and power were derived from its strategic monopoly over the gold trade flowing from the interior mines of the Zimbabwe Plateau to the coastal ports. This control financed the construction of magnificent coral-stone architecture, most notably the Great Mosque and the sprawling Husuni Kubwa palace complex, which featured over a hundred rooms, sunken courtyards, and a sophisticated piped water system.

The city’s grandeur was immortalized by the renowned 14th-century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta, who described it as "one of the most beautiful and well-constructed towns in the world." Kilwa’s cosmopolitan society was a fusion of indigenous Bantu, Arab, and Persian influences, creating a distinct Swahili culture and language. Its extensive trade networks reached as far as China, evidenced by the abundance of recovered Chinese porcelain shards. The city’s decline began with Portuguese intervention in the early 16th century, but its extensive ruins stand as unparalleled physical testimony to a sophisticated, literate, and mercantile African urban society that flourished centuries before European contact.

8. Mombasa, Kenya (Founded c. 900 CE)

Mombasa’s history as a pivotal Indian Ocean port is deeply embedded in its archaeology and layered urban landscape. Excavations within the Old Town and at Fort Jesus, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, have uncovered evidence of continuous settlement and maritime trade dating to at least the 10th century CE. The city developed as a key node in the Swahili commercial network, dealing in ivory, gold, timber, and spices long before the arrival of Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498. Its natural harbor and strategic location made it a coveted prize, leading to centuries of contention between African, Omani Arab, and European powers, each leaving a distinct architectural and cultural imprint on the city’s fabric.

The urban morphology of Mombasa’s Old Town, with its narrow winding streets, iconic carved wooden doors, and coral-stone buildings, reflects its long history as a cosmopolitan crossroads. Academic research, including work published by the National Museums of Kenya, documents how the city was governed by a succession of Swahili ruling families and later by the Sultans of Oman, who established it as a central hub for their East African commercial empire. This rich historical tapestry, encompassing pre-colonial African sovereignty, Omani imperialism, and European colonial competition, establishes Mombasa not merely as an old settlement but as a continuously evolving epicenter of cross-cultural exchange and economic power in the western Indian Ocean.

7. Tunis, Tunisia (Founded c. 814 BCE)

The historical significance of Tunis is intrinsically linked to, yet distinct from, the famed city of Carthage, founded on its outskirts by Phoenician settlers in 814 BCE. While Carthage grew into a Mediterranean superpower, the broader Tunis region shows evidence of even earlier Berber settlements, as noted in archaeological surveys by the Institut National du Patrimoine (Tunisia). Following the Roman destruction of Carthage in 146 BCE, the site of Tunis gained prominence, evolving into a major urban center under subsequent Roman, Vandal, Byzantine, and most significantly, Arab Muslim rule. By the time London was a small Roman outpost, Tunis was already a established capital and a vibrant cultural and commercial hub in North Africa.

Under the Aghlabids in the 9th century CE and later as the heart of the Hafsid dynasty (13th–16th centuries), Tunis reached its apogee as one of the Islamic world's great cities. It became a renowned center of learning, theology, and craft, with the Al-Zaytuna Mosque serving as one of the oldest and most important universities in history. The medina of Tunis, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, encapsulates this millennia-long continuity, with its intricate souks, palaces, and madrasas built upon ancient urban grids. This layered history, from Punic antecedent to Islamic metropolis, demonstrates Tunis’s enduring role as a political capital and a crucible of civilization in the Maghreb for over two millennia.

6. Gao, Mali (Founded c. 300–400 CE, earlier settlement 1st century CE)

Gao’s antiquity as a major urban center on the Niger River is well-established through both historical chronicles and modern archaeology. Excavations led by teams such as those from the University of Geneva have uncovered evidence of a substantial settlement at the site of Gao-Saney from as early as the 1st century CE, with continuous development into a major regional town by 300–400 CE. This predates the establishment of most European capitals and confirms Gao’s early role in trans-Saharan trade networks. Initially serving as the capital of the Kingdom of Gao, it was later absorbed into the Mali Empire before reaching its zenith as the imperial capital of the Songhai Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries under rulers like Sunni Ali Ber and Askia Muhammad.

As the Songhai capital, Gao transformed into one of the largest and most influential cities in Africa, a fact recorded by contemporary Arab historians and later European visitors. The city was a sophisticated administrative, commercial, and intellectual hub, with a bustling market, a standing army, and Islamic scholars contributing to the famed libraries of Timbuktu. The impressive ruins of the Tomb of Askia, a UNESCO World Heritage Site built in 1495, exemplifies the monumental architecture and wealth of the empire. Gao’s historical trajectory, from an early riverine trade settlement to the heart of a vast inland empire, underscores the depth and complexity of state formation and urbanism in the West African Sahel.

5. Djenné, Mali (Founded c. 250 BCE)

Djenné is one of sub-Saharan Africa’s most iconic ancient cities, with origins reaching back to the middle of the first millennium BCE. The nearby archaeological site of Djenné-Djenno, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, provides the foundational evidence, revealing a large, densely populated settlement that flourished from around 250 BCE to 1400 CE. Excavations by researchers such as Roderick and Susan McIntosh, published in journals like Science, uncovered remarkable findings: complex urban planning with distinct residential quarters, advanced iron-smelting technology, and a vast assemblage of terracotta figurines. Most significantly, the site shows no signs of a ruling elite or centralized palace for much of its history, suggesting a unique, possibly heterarchical, form of early urban social organization.

The contemporary city of Djenné, founded in the 13th century CE as Djenné-Djenno declined, inherited this deep legacy. It became a paramount commercial and Islamic scholarly center within the Mali and later Songhai empires, rivaling Timbuktu. Its architectural masterpiece, the Great Mosque, rebuilt in its current form in 1907 but following a centuries-old design, is the world’s largest mud-brick structure and a symbol of Sudano-Sahelian architecture. The city’s continuous habitation, its weekly vibrant market, and its ongoing maintenance traditions for the mosque illustrate a living connection to an urban past that stretches back over two millennia, making it a critical site for understanding indigenous African urban development.

4. Tripoli, Libya (Founded c. 1000 BCE)

Tripoli’s origins lie in the Phoenician expansion across the Mediterranean, with the settlement of Oea (on the site of modern Tripoli) established around the 7th century BCE as part of the three-city region of Tripolis. However, archaeological evidence from the broader area indicates continuous human settlement dating to at least 1000 BCE, firmly placing it among the ancient cities of the Mediterranean basin. It successively fell under the control of Carthage, Rome, the Vandals, the Byzantine Empire, and finally the Arab conquest in the 7th century CE, each era adding a layer to its rich historical stratigraphy. For over two thousand years before cities like Berlin or Moscow were founded, Tripoli was already a significant urban and trading center.

The city’s enduring importance is encapsulated in its medina, a densely packed historic core that has been continuously inhabited since the Arab era. Key monuments such as the Arch of Marcus Aurelius (2nd century CE) and the vibrant souks surrounding the Karamanli-era mosques bear witness to its layered past. Under Ottoman rule from the 16th century onward, Tripoli served as the capital of the Tripolitania province and a base for Barbary corsairs, further cementing its role as a powerful, albeit contentious, political and economic hub in the central Mediterranean. This long and continuous timeline establishes Tripoli not only as a foundational Phoenician colony but as a persistent center of civilization whose history is integral to the narrative of the Mediterranean world.

3. Luxor (Thebes), Egypt (Founded c. 3200 BCE)

Luxor, encompassing the vast archaeological domain of ancient Thebes, represents one of humanity’s most profound and enduring urban and religious complexes. Thebes rose to prominence as the capital of Egypt during the Middle and New Kingdom periods (c. 2055–1069 BCE), but evidence of significant settlement dates to the Early Dynastic Period around 3200 BCE, as confirmed by excavations and Egyptological research. This foundational timeline means Thebes was a thriving political and spiritual center millennia before the conception of any modern European capital. It served as the cult center of the god Amun-Ra, and its monumental architecture was designed to project the absolute power of the pharaoh and the eternal dominance of the state religion.

The scale and preservation of Thebes are unparalleled. On the East Bank, the temples of Karnak and Luxor form a vast interconnected complex of pylons, obelisks, and hypostyle halls, with Karnak being the largest religious building ever constructed. On the West Bank lies the necropolis, including the Valley of the Kings, the Valley of the Queens, and the mortuary temples of rulers like Hatshepsut and Ramesses II. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Thebes is not merely a collection of ruins but a complete ritual landscape that articulated the ancient Egyptian cosmos. Its continuous architectural development over two thousand years provides an immutable record of artistic, religious, and political evolution in one of the world’s first and most influential civilizations.

2. Faiyum, Egypt (Founded c. 4000 BCE)

The Faiyum Depression stands as a cradle of early organized agriculture and sedentary life, not just in Egypt but globally. Archaeological work, notably by Gertrude Caton-Thompson and Elinor Wight Gardner in the early 20th century and continued by modern teams, has identified the Neolithic cultures of the Faiyum as dating from approximately 5200 to 4000 BCE. These communities developed sophisticated basin irrigation techniques to harness the annual floodwaters of the Nile via the natural channel of the Bahr Yussef, cultivating emmer wheat and barley and storing surplus grain in silos. This marks one of the earliest known instances of large-scale, planned agricultural practice in Africa, establishing a settled, productive society while much of Europe was still in the Mesolithic period.

The region’s significance continued unabated into the Pharaonic era. Known as *Shedet* to the ancient Egyptians and later as *Crocodilopolis* in the Greco-Roman period, it became the cult center for the crocodile god Sobek. The city was a major administrative and religious hub, with its importance reflected in the patronage of 12th Dynasty pharaohs like Senusret II, who expanded its irrigation works. The Faiyum’s unique ecology and long history of human adaptation offer an invaluable microcosm of societal development, showcasing the critical transition from prehistoric foraging to state-level agricultural economy and urbanism, a process that laid the essential groundwork for the emergence of Egyptian civilization.

1. Memphis, Egypt (Founded c. 3100 BCE)

Memphis holds the singular distinction of being the foundational capital of a unified Egyptian state and one of the most enduring cities of the ancient world. According to tradition and archaeological evidence, it was established around 3100 BCE by the first pharaoh, Narmer (Menes), at the strategic apex of the Nile Delta to govern the newly united lands of Upper and Lower Egypt. This founding date renders Memphis older than Rome by well over two millennia and predates the establishment of major European capitals such as Paris, London, and Berlin by nearly three thousand years. For much of the Old Kingdom and intermittently thereafter, it served as the administrative and ceremonial heart of Egypt, growing into what was likely the largest city on Earth during its peak.

The city’s monumental legacy is synonymous with the zenith of Egyptian pyramid-building. The nearby necropolises of Saqqara, Dashur, and Giza, with their colossal pyramids and complex funerary temples, were integral to Memphis’s religious and administrative sphere. As a cosmopolitan hub, it attracted traders, diplomats, and craftsmen from across the Mediterranean and the Near East. Although its political prominence waned in later periods, supplanted by Thebes and Alexandria, Memphis remained a significant religious and cultural center into the Greco-Roman era. Today, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, its extensive ruins, including the great temple of Ptah, royal palaces, and the alabaster sphinx, provide irreplaceable insight into the origins and sustained grandeur of one of history’s most influential civilizations.

We welcome your feedback. Kindly direct any comments or observations regarding this article to our Editor-in-Chief at [email protected], with a copy to [email protected].